An \textit{incomplete database}$\idb$ is a set of deterministic databases $\db$ called possible worlds.
Denote the schema of $\db$ as $\sch(\db)$. A \textit{probabilistic database}$\pdb$ is a pair $(\idb, \pd)$ where $\idb$ is an incomplete database and $\pd$ is a probability distribution over $\idb$. Queries over probabilistic databases are evaluated using the so-called possible world semantics. Under possible world semantics, the result of a query $\query$ over an incomplete database $\idb$ is the set of query answers produced by evaluating $\query$ over each possible world:
For a probabilistic database $\pdb=(\idb, \pd)$, the result of a query is the pair $(\query(\idb), \pd')$ where $\pd'$ is a probability distribution over $\query(\idb)$ that assigns to each possible query result the sum of the probabilities of the worlds that produce this answer:
Note that in this work we consider multisets, i.e., each possible world is a set of multiset relations and queries are evaluated using bag semantics. We will use $\domK$-relations to model multisets. A \emph{$\domK$-relation}~\cite{DBLP:conf/pods/GreenKT07} is a relation whose tuples are annotated with elements from a commutative semiring $\semK=(\domK, \addK, \multK, \zeroK, \oneK)$. A commutative semiring is a structure with a domain $\domK$ and associative and commutative binary operations $\addK$ and $\multK$ such that $\multK$ distributes over $\addK$, $\zeroK$ is the identity of $\addK$, $\oneK$ is the identity of $\multK$, and $\zeroK$ annihilates all elements of $\domK$ when combined by $\multK$.
Formally, an n-ary $\semK$-relation over $\udom$ is a function $\rel: \udom^n \to\domK$ with finite support $\support{\rel}=\{\tup\mid\rel(\tup)\neq\zeroK\}$.
A $\semK$-database is a set of $\semK$-relations. It will be convenient to also interpret a $\semK$-database as a function from tuples to annotations. Thus, $\rel(t)$ (resp., $\db(t)$) denotes the annotation associated by $\semK$-relation $\rel$ ($\semK$-database $\db$) to $t$.
We review positive relational algebra semantics for $\semK$-relations below.
Consider the semiring $\semN=(\domN,+,\times,0,1)$ of natural numbers. $\semN$-databases model bag semantics by annotating each tuple with its multiplicity. A probabilistic $\semN$-database ($\semN$-PDB) is a PDB where each possible world is an $\semN$-database. We study the problem of computing statistical moments for query results over such databases. Specifically, given a probabilistic $\semN$-database $\pdb=(\idb, \pd)$, query $\query$, and possible result $t$, we treat $\query(\db)(t)$ as a random $\semN$-valued variable and are interested in computing its expectation $\expct_{\idb\sim\probDist}[\query(\db)(t)]$:
We use $\evald{\cdot}{\db}$ to denote the result of evaluating query $\query$ over $\semK$-database $\db$. In the definition shown below, we assume that tuples are of appropriate arity and use $\project_A(\tup)$ to denote the projection of tuple $\tup$ on a list of attributes $A$. Furthermore, $\theta(\tup)$ denotes the (Boolean) result of evaluating condition $\theta$ over $\tup$.
Consider now the semiring $(\semNX, +, \cdot, 0, 1)$ whose domain is $\semNX$, with the standard addition and multiplication of polynomials.
We will use $\semNX$-PDB $\pxdb$, defined as the tuple $(\db, \pd)$, where $\semNX$-database $\db$ is paired with probability distribution $\pd$.
We denote by $\polyForTuple$ the annotation of tuple $t$ in the result of $\query$ on an implicit $\semNX$-PDB (i.e., $\polyForTuple=\query(\pxdb)(t)$ for some $\pxdb$) and as before, interpret it as a function $\polyForTuple: \{0,1\}^{|\vct X|}\rightarrow\semN$ from vectors of variable assignments to the corresponding value of the annotating polynomial.
$\semNX$-PDBs and a function $\rmod$ from an $\semNX$-PDB to an equivalent $\semN$-PDB are both formalized in \Cref{subsec:supp-mat-background}.
This proposition shows that computing expected tuple multiplicities is equivalent to computing the expectation of a polynomial (for that tuple) from a probability distribution over all possible assignments of variables in the polynomial to $\{0,1\}$.
We focus on this problem from now on, assume an implicit result tuple, and so drop the subscript from $\polyForTuple$ (i.e., $\poly$ is used as a polynomial from now on).
In this paper, we focus on two popular forms of PDB: Block-Independent (\bi) and Tuple-Independent (\ti) PDBs.
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A \bi$\pxdb=(\db, \pd)$ is an $\semNX$-PDB such that (i) every tuple is annotated with either $0$ or a unique variable $X_i$ and (ii) that the tuples $\tup$ of $\pxdb$ for which $\pxdb(\tup)\neq0$ can be partitioned into a set of blocks such that variables from separate blocks are independent of each other and variables from the same blocks are disjoint events.
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A \emph{\ti} is a \bi where each block contains exactly one tuple.
\Cref{subsec:supp-mat-ti-bi-def} explains \tis and \bis in greater detail.
We first formally define circuits, an encoding of polynomials that we use throughout the paper. Since we are particularly using \emph{lineage} circuits, we drop the term lineage and only refer to them as circuits.
% An expression tree $\etree$ over $\vct{X}$ is a binary %an ADT logically viewed as an n-ary
%tree, whose internal nodes are from the set $\{+, \times\}$, with leaf nodes being either from the set $\mathbb{R}$ $(\tnum)$ or from the set of monomials $(\var)$. The members of $\etree$ are \type, \val, \vari{partial}, \vari{children}, and \vari{weight}, where \type is the type of value stored in the node $\etree$ (i.e. one of $\{+, \times, \var, \tnum\}$, \val is the value stored, and \vari{children} is the list of $\etree$'s children where $\etree_\lchild$ is the left child and $\etree_\rchild$ the right child.
We represent query polynomials via {\em arithmetic circuits}~\cite{arith-complexity}, a standard way to represent polynomials over fields (particularly in the field of algebraic complexity) that we use for polynomials over $\mathbb N$ in the obvious way.
A circuit $\circuit$ is a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) whose source nodes (in degree of $0$) consist of elements in either $\reals$ or $\vct{X}$. The internal nodes and sink node of $\circuit$ have binary input and are either sum ($\circplus$) or product ($\circmult$) gates.
$\circuit$ additionally has the following members: \type, \val, \vari{partial}, \vari{input}, and \vari{Lweight}, \vari{Rweight}, where \type is the type of value stored in the node $\circuit$ (i.e. one of $\{\circplus, \circmult, \var, \tnum\}$, \val is the value stored (a constant or variable), and \vari{input} is the list of \circuit 's inputs where $\circuit_\linput$ is the left input and $\circuit_\rinput$ the right input. When the underlying DAG is a tree (with edges pointing towards the root), we will refer to the structure as an expression tree \etree. Note that in such a case, the root of \etree is analogous to the sink of the \circuit.
As stated in ~\Cref{def:circuit}, every internal node has at most two in-edges, is labeled as an addition or a multiplication node, and has no limit on its outdegree.
The circuit \circuit in ~\Cref{fig:circuit-express-tree} encodes the polynomial $XY + WZ$. Note that such an encoding lends itself naturally to having all gates with an outdegree of $1$. Note further that \circuit is indeed a tree with edges pointing towards the root.
The semantics of \revision{circuits} ~follows the obvious interpretation. We \revision{next} define \revision{its realtionship with polynomials } formally:
Denote \revision{$\polyf(\circuit)$}~ to be the function from circuit \revision{$\circuit$}~ to its corresponding polynomial. $\polyf(\cdot)$ is recursively defined on \revision{$\circuit$}~ as follows, with addition and multiplication following the standard interpretation for polynomials:
Note that $\circuit$ need not encode an expression in standard monomial basis, while as stated previously a polynomial is considered to be in SMB, and the output of \polyf($\cdot$) is therefore in SMB. For instance, $\circuit$ could represent a compressed form of the running example, such as $(X +2Y)(2X - Y)$\revision{
, as shown in \Cref{fig:circuit}.
\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{tikzpicture}[thick]
\node[tree_node] (a1) at (0, 0) {$\boldsymbol{X}$};
\node[tree_node] (b1) at (1.5, 0) {$\boldsymbol{2}$};
\node[tree_node] (c1) at (3, 0) {$\boldsymbol{Y}$};
\node[tree_node] (d1) at (4.5, 0) {$\boldsymbol{-1}$};
\node[tree_node] (a2) at (0.75, 1) {$\boldsymbol{\circmult}$};
\node[tree_node] (b2) at (2.25, 1) {$\boldsymbol{\circmult}$};
\node[tree_node] (c2) at (3.75, 1) {$\boldsymbol{\circmult}$};
\node[tree_node] (a3) at (0.55, 2) {$\boldsymbol{\circplus}$};
\node[tree_node] (b3) at (3.75, 2) {$\boldsymbol{\circplus}$};
\node[tree_node] (a4) at (2.25, 3) {$\boldsymbol{\circmult}$};
\begin{Definition}[Expression Tree Set]\label{def:express-tree-set}$\etreeset{\smb}$ is the set of all possible expression trees $\etree$, such that $poly(\etree)=\poly(\vct{X})$.
Let $\vct{X}=(X_1, \ldots, X_n)$, and $\pdb$ be an $\semNX$-PDB over $\vct{X}$ with probability distribution $\pd$ over assignments $\vct{X}\to[0,1]$, $\query$ an n-ary query, and $t$ an n-ary tuple.
% When $\idb$ is a probabilistic database, $\idb$ can be viewed as a two-tuple $(\wSet, \pd)$, where $\wSet$ as noted, is the set of possible worlds, and $\pd$ is a probability distribution over $\wSet$.
% The possible worlds semantics gives a framework for how to think about running queries over $\idb$. Given a query $\query$, $\query$ is deterministically run over each $\db \in \idb$, and the output of $\query(\idb)$ is defined as the set of results (worlds) from running $\query$ over each $\db_i \in \idb$. We write this formally as,